Wednesday, October 6, 2010
Itaipu Dam - Paraguay . Brazil
The Itaipu main dam is a concrete dam, of the hollow gravity type. During the initial conception of the project options were studied: solid gravity, hollow gravity, rockfill and in an arc.
After technical and geological evaluation, it was chosen the concrete dam of hollow gravity type for the main dam. The other dam types built at Itaipu, auxiliary dams, such as rockfill and earthfill used rocks and substrate (earth) from local excavations.
The Itaipu Dam is a hydroelectric dam on the Paraná River located on the border between Brazil and Paraguay. The name "Itaipu" was taken from an isle that existed near the construction site. In the Guarani language, Itaipu means "the sound of a stone". The American composer Philip Glass has also written a symphonic cantata named Itaipu, in honour of the structure.
The dam is the largest operating hydroelectric facility in terms of annual generating capacity, generating 94.7 TWh in 2008 and 91.6 TWh in 2009, while the annual generating capacity of the Three Gorges Dam was 80.8 TWh in 2008 and 79.4 TWh in 2009[1]. It is a binational undertaking run by Brazil and Paraguay at the Paraná River on the border section between the two countries, 15 km (9.3 mi) north of the Friendship Bridge. The project ranges from Foz do Iguaçu, in Brazil, and Ciudad del Este in Paraguay, in the south to Guaíra and Salto del Guaíra in the north. The installed generation capacity of the plant is 14 GW, with 20 generating units providing 700 MW each with a hydraulic design head of 118 m. In 2008 the plant generated a record 94.68 billion kWh, supplying 90% of the energy consumed by Paraguay and 19% of that consumed by Brazil.
Of the twenty generator units currently installed, ten generate at 50 Hz for Paraguay and ten generate at 60 Hz for Brazil. Two 600 kV HVDC lines, each approximately 800 km long, carry both Brazilian and Paraguayan energy to Sao Paulo where the terminal equipment converts the power to 60 Hz.
History
Negotiations between Brazil and Paraguay
The concept behind Itaipu Power Plant was the result of heavy negotiations between the two countries during the 1960s. The "Ata do Iguaçu" (Iguaçu Act) was signed on July 22, 1966, by the Brazilian and Paraguayan Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Juracy Magalhaes and Sapena Pastor, respectively. This was a joint declaration of the mutual interest in studying the exploitation of the hydric resources that the two countries shared in the section of the Paraná River starting from, and including, the Salto de Sete Quedas, to the Iguazu River's watershed. The Treaty that gave origin to the power plant was signed in 1973.
The terms of the treaty, which expires in 2023, have been the subject of widespread discontent in Paraguay. The government of President Lugo vowed to renegotiate the terms of the treaty with Brazil, which long remained hostile to any renegotiation.
In 2009, Brazil agreed to a fairer payment of electricity to Paraguay and also allowed Paraguay to sell excess power directly to Brazilian companies instead of solely through the Brazilian electricity monopoly.
Construction starts
.
In 1970, the consortium formed by the companies IECO (from the United States of America) and ELC Electroconsult S.p.A. (from Italy) won the international competition for the realization of the viability studies and for the elaboration of the construction project. Work began in February 1971. On April 26, 1973, Brazil and Paraguay signed the Itaipu Treaty, the legal instrument for the hydroelectric exploitation of the Paraná River by the two countries. On May 17, 1974, the Itaipu Binacional entity was created to administer the plant's construction. The works began in January of the following year.
Paraná River rerouted
On October 14, 1978, the Paraná River had its route changed, which allowed a section of the riverbed to dry so the dam could be built there.
Agreement by Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina
An important diplomatic settlement was reached with the signing of the Acordo Tripartite by Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, on October 19, 1979. This agreement established the allowed river levels and how much they could change as a result of the various hydroelectrical undertakings in the watershed that was shared by the three countries. At that time, the three countries were ruled by military dictatorships. Argentina was concerned that, in the event of a conflict, Brazil could open the floodgates, raising the water level in the River Plate and consequently flood the capital city of Buenos Aires.
Formation of the lake
The plant's reservoir began its formation on October 13, 1982, when the dam works were completed and the side canal's gates were closed. Throughout this period, heavy rains and flooding accelerated the filling of the reservoir as the water rose 100 meters (330 ft) and reached the gates of the spillway at 10 a.m. on October 27.
Start of operations
On May 5, 1984, the first generation unit started running in Itaipu. The first 18 units were installed at the rate of two to three a year; the last two of these started running in the year 1991.
Capacity expansion in 2007
The last two of the 20 electric generation units started operations in September 2006 and in March 2007, thus raising the installed capacity to 14 GW and completing the power plant. This increase in capacity will allow for 18 generation units to remain running all of the time while two stay down for maintenance. Due to a clause in the treaty signed between Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, the maximum number of generating units allowed to operate simultaneously cannot exceed 18 (see the agreement section for more information).
The rated nominal power of each generating unit (turbine and generator) is 700 MW. However, because the head (difference between reservoir level and the river level at the foot of the dam) that actually occurs is higher than the designed head (118 m), the power available exceeds 750 MW half of the time for each generator.
Each turbine generates around 700 MW; by comparison, all the water from the Iguazu Falls would have the capacity to feed only two generators.
Energy
The Itaipu power plant is, at present, the largest hydroelectric power plant in the world as regards the generation of energy. With 20 generator units and 14,000 MW of installed power, it supplies 18,9% of the energy consumed in Brazil and 77,0% of the Paraguayan demand.
In 2009, the Itaipu power plant generated 91.651.808 megawatts-hour (MWh), the fourth highest in 25 years of power production.
The historic record for electricity production was set in 2008, with a production of 94,684,781 megawatts-hour (MWh). The previous record had been set in 2000, when Itaipu generated 93,427,598 MWh.
Powerhouse
The Powerhouse concentrates the electromechanical equipment responsible for generating electricity at Itaipu. This equipment comprises the scroll casing, the turbine, the generator, the excitation system and the speed governor.
Production from year to year
In 2009, the Itaipu power plant generated 91,651,808 megawatts-hour (MWh), the fourth highest in 25 years of power production.
This volume of power had never been achieved by any other hydro power plant in the world. The Three Gorges plant China is building on the Rio Yang-Tse River should not surpass Itaipu in terms of production. Once it is finished, the Chinese power plant will have 22,400 megawatts (MW) in installed capacity, compared to Itaipu's 14,000 MW. The latter's advantage over Three Gorges is its hydrological situation: the Paraná River, where Itaipu is located, has a great volume of water all year round.
The electricity generated by Itaipu in 2009 would be enough to supply the entire worldwide consumption for about two days; serve a country like Argentina for 10 months; and Paraguay, a partner in this enterprise, for 9 years. It could also supply the electricity demand of 21 cities the size of greater Curitiba for one year.
A few words in Guarani Language - Paraguay
aha: I go ao: clothes aju: I come
akã: head ani: don’t araka’e: when
asaje: siesta avei: too, as well cena: to eat dinner
che: Me, my or I che ra’a: my son, used between men
chiko/a:boyfriend/girlfriend chisme:gossip
e’a: Oh! (gasp) eho: go (command) eju: come (command)
ere: say (command) guahẽ: to arrive guápo/a:hard-working
guapy: to sit guata: to walk gueraha: to take
guereko: to have gueru: to bring ha nde: and you?
ha upei?: and then (greeting) ha: and
ha’arõ: to wait ha’e: him or her, I say, to be
ha’ekuéra: them ha’u: I eat hayhu: to love
he’u: eat (command) hecha: to see héê: yes
heka: to search for something hendu: to hear
henói: to call hese: about, to, or for him or her
hesekuéra: about, to or for them hetÅ©: to kiss or to smell
hikuái: them (used at the end of sentences) hína: ing
i: he/she/them chendale beginning ikatu: can, am able to
i: chendal beginning for he/she/them iko: live, go
ime: to be, location 'imi: a little bit -io: ?
ite/ete/te: totally iterei/eterei/terei: very, a lot, too
ja-: v.b. for we all jaha: let´s go jahu: to shower or bathe
jajotopata: see you soon japo: to do or make
japu: to lie or be a liar jeroky: to dance jogua: to buy
johéi: to wash jopy:adj. cheap; v. to squeeze or press
ka’aru: later afternoon kaigue: feeling lazy, bummin', being a lazy butt
karu: to eat lunch or just to eat ka’u:adj. a drunk; v. to get drunk
ke: to sleep ke: to enter (ai.) -ke: strong command
ko: this ko’ãga: now ko’ára: today
ko’ẽrõ: tomorrow kotevẽ: to need (ai.) kuaa: to know (ai.)
-kuaa: v.e. to know how -kue: during kuehe: yesterday
-kuri: verb ending for past tense kyra:fat
kytÄ©: to cut (ai.) -ma: already ma’erã: for what
maña: to look at or to watch mandi’o: mandioca
mandu'a: to remember máva: who mba’apo: to work
mba’e: what, thing, or situation mba’e la porte: how are you?
mba’éichapa: how are you? mba’ére: why
mba’etekoiko: how ya livin´? mbo’e: to teach
mbogue: to turn off mboy: how much, how many
-me: nasal ending for in, to, at me’ẽ: to give
-mi: please moÄ©: to put moõ: where
mopotĩ: to clean -na: pleeeease, pleading command
nahániri: no nantendei: I don´t understand
ñande: we all (inclusive) ñaña:mean, bad (person)
ña-: nasal v.b. for we ndaikuaái: I don´t know
nde: you, your nde rasóre: Darn it
ndi: with ñe’ẽ: to speak
nupã: to punish, to hit or beat (ai.)
ñatende: to attend to something
ñeha’a: to try or to struggle to do something
ñembo’e: to pray ñemonde: to dress yourself
ñeno: to lay down o-: v.b. for him, her or them
oĩma: ready op!: hi! opa: done
ore: just us -pa: ? paga: to pay
páy: to wake up pe-: v.b. for you all ...pe: in, to or at
peẽ: you all pende/pene: peẽ beginning for chendales
penderehe: about, to or for you all pensa: to think
pe’a: to take something out, remove something (ai.) piko: ?
-pio: ? piru:skinny poko: to touch
porã: good, pretty porandu: to ask pórte:situation
poru: to use pota: to want pu'ã: to get up
puka: to laugh purahéi: to sing pyhareve: morning
pyhare: night pyta: to stay or to be located
pytu’u: to rest pytyvõ: to help (ai.) ra’e: ? in past tense
rambosa: to eat breakfast re-: v.b. for you
rehe/re: for, about, of, on reko: to have
ro-: v.b. for just us sapukái: to yell scrivi: to write
sẽ: to go out, leave, turn out ...se: v.e. to want to
sogue: broke as a joke su’u: to bite or chew -ta: future tense
tape: street tavy: crazy
terere: yerba drink, sweet nectar of life ti: negation on a command
topa: to find tranquilopa : all is well, tranquil
tykua: to serve, like terere or mate typei: to sweep
-va:that is, who is, which is vai: ugly or bad
vale:adj. hard-working; v. to cost or be worth something
vare'a: to be hungry ve: more
vy’a: to be happy or to have fun y: water
Carlos Colombino - Paraguay
Born in Concepcion, 20 Oct 1937.
Paraguayan painter and engraver. His training was in architecture, and this had a considerable influence on his painting style.
Colombino's work marks the climax of the Paraguayan plastic arts' entry into contemporary modern art. He has traveled to and studied in Paris and Madrid, but a powerful connection with Paraguay lured him home where he currently resides. Throughout his long career, Colombino has produced a coherent and powerful body of work. His accomplishments include Inter-American Award Gabriela Mistral in Washington D.C., Special Prize for Painting at the Bienal Internacional del Deporte in Madrid, Spain, International Prize for Engraving at Bienal de San Juan de Puerto Rico, and first prize at the Sao Paulo Bienal in Sao Paulo, Brazil. His work has been featured in numerous solo and group exhibitions, and continues to be a strong presence in the Latin American art community. Wood contains a movement that is present within the grain; it is this flow pattern that inspires Carlos Colombino when he carves into a slab of this material in order to generate a form. Later in his artistic endeavor, he adds minimal color to areas that highlight geometric monumental forms that originate from the depths of the imagination. The results are shapes and images that take on a life and reality of their own and which exist in a surreal environment that was created especially for them to thrive. Political and social themes also purvey here. Human rights confront dictatorship as his shapes are woven together but on the verge of falling apart, straining against one another.
After the 1950s, when he went through an initial phase oscillating between a rather wildly dramatic style and another that favoured formal organization, he settled on a more stable personal style in the 1960s. His most frequently used technique, xylopintura, involved the use of wood-engraving tools to cut into plywood; the variations in the layers and the end- and cross-grain absorbed dyes and paints in different ways, and the image emerged from the process. In 1977 he began to develop a series of constructions entitled Reflections on Direr, in which he analysed his own expressive vocabulary and at the same time made a moving statement on human liberty. These works undoubtedly reflected the influence on Colombino of the Paraguayan RE-FIGURACION movement. Both his tormented neo-figurative work of the 1960s, when he had been a proponent of Neofiguracion, and these precise and shattered constructions constitute a vigorous indictment of the violation of human rights committed by Latin-American dictatorships, especially that of General Alfredo Stroessner in Paraguay from 1954 to 1989. From the early 1980s Colombino extended his style to an aggressive impressionism in solid constructions such as The Resurrection (1988), a mural in Concepcion Cathedral.
The literary output has been prolific Carlos Colombino. Wrote several poetry books and novels signed under the pseudonym "Esteban Cabañas. Also has an important production in the genre of essay, which embraced primarily to address cultural and historical themes of Paraguay.
His first poetic title was "The monsters vain" (1964). He subsequently published other books of poetry: "The time, the circle" (1979), "The four boundaries" (1981), "unearthing" (1982), "Premonitions" (1986), "Pit of words" (1992); and "rebellious castaway, with which he won the prize "Garcia Lorca 98."
Also published four novels: "The sweet and murky" (1998) and "Do you drink coffee on that corner?" (2000), "Juego cruzado" (2001) y "El dedo trémulo" (2002), "Alegato" (2005). (2000), "Cross Game" (2001) and "trembling finger" (2002), "Case" (2005).
Wrote two plays: "Time for Three" ( 1959 ) and "The Parable of the site more perfect" ( 1984 ).
Hi is one of the five writers selected for the National Prize for Literature (1999) in Paraguay. In 2002 with the novel "Juego Cruzado" won the Municipal Prize, awarded by the Municipality of Asunción.
Carlos Colombino is one of the creators of the Visual Arts Center / Museo del Barro, and its Director; Also creates the cultural center of Asuncion “Manzana de la Rivera”during the municipal administration of Carlos Filizzola. Also directed the restoration of Asuncion cultural center, and importer architectural heritage of the Paraguayan Capital. He creates the Foundations “Carlos Laila Colombino” which among other initiatives, fostered the creation of the Museum of Gold and Silver of Paraguay, in addition to the Casa Museo Caapucu, and the Museum of Contemporary Art and Design.
Jesuitic Reductions - Paraguay
A Jesuit Reduction was a type of settlement for indigenous people in Latin America created by the Jesuit Order during the 17th and 18th centuries. In general, the strategy of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires was to gather native populations into centers called Indian Reductions (reducciones de indios), in order to Christianize, tax, and govern them more efficiently. The Jesuit interpretation of this strategy was implemented primarily in an area that corresponds to modern day Paraguay amongst the Tupi-Guarani peoples. Later reductions were extended into areas now part of Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia.
Jesuit reductions were different from the reductions in other regions because the indigenous people (Indians) were expected to convert to Christianity but not necessarily European culture.[1]Under the leadership of both the Jesuits and native caciques, the reductions achieved a high degree of autonomy within the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires. With the use of Indian labour, the reductions became economically successful. When their existence was threatened by the incursions of Bandeirante slave traders, Indian militia were created that fought effectively against the colonists.[1] The resistance by the Jesuit reductions to slave raids, as well as their high degree of autonomy and economic success, have been cited as contributing factors to the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Americas in 1767.[2] The Jesuit reductions present a controversial chapter of the evangelisational history of the Americas, and are variously described as jungle utopias or as theocratic regimes of terror.[1]
"The Jesuit World" is the route that allows us getting to know the history of Jesuits in this region, the foundation of the Jesuitical Province of Paraguay, the attempt to evangelize the natives by these brave priests, and their struggle to protect them from slavery. The visits to the remaining archeological sites take us to relive the heroic acts of these players, be it from the native's point of view, perhaps his only option for survival to the frantic colonization, or from the point of view of the Jesuit, a cultured and intelligent man giving—very often—his life for a cause.
This route may be taken by those groups or individuals wishing to delve deeper into this history, like students, religious people, etc., or combined with another interest like adventure itineraries, ecotourism, ranches, etc.
Declared Patrimony of Humanity in 1993 by UNESCO.
Paraguay Mayor wars
The War of the Triple Alliance
When Carlos Antonio Lopez died in 1862, his son Francisco Solano Lopez became the ruler of Paraguay. At the time, the country was in the midst of border disputes with Brazil and Argentina, and relation between the countries were tense. Francisco Solano Lopez believed that Paraguay’s army was strong enough to defeat Brazil and Argentina. So when Brazil invaded Uruguay – another small country in South America – in 1864. Solano Lopez decides to act like the protector of little nations. He sent his army to attach the Brazilian forces in Uruguay.
This proved to be a tremendous mistake. The Paraguayan army was led by incompetent officers who had been appointed not for their military skills but because of their friendship with Solano Lopez. Besides, Paraguay was far smaller than its neighbors. Brazil fought back. Argentina joined in, hoping to win a chunk of Paraguay for itself. Even Uruguay went to war against its supposed protector.
The war went disastrously for Paraguay. By the end of the fighting its prewar population of about half a million had been reduced to approximately 220,000 – with fewer than 28,000 adult males. In fact, so many men where lost that, in on of the last battles for the war, Paraguay was forced to field an army composed of children – most of whom where slaughtered. Finally, in 1870, Brazilian soldiers overtook a retreating Francisco Solano Lopez – the dictator who six years earlier had ignited the war – and killed him. The War of the Triple Alliance was over, but Paraguay’s problems were not.
After the war Paraguay hit rock bottom. The economy was in ruins and there weren’t enough men left to do the necessary work. Brazil and Argentina eventually sliced off a combined 142,349 sq. km. of Paraguay territory. Troops from these two countries occupied defeated Paraguay, remaining until 1879. And even after the soldiers left, Argentina and Brazil continued to interfere in Paraguayan politics. Governments came and went, depending on the support of the foreign powers.
Yet this bleak era gave birth to two political parties, the Liberal Party and the Colorado Part. Those two parties still dominate Paraguay politics.
General Bernardino Caballero founded the Colorado Party, which controlled Paraguay for most of the period between 1880 and 1904. In 1904 Benigno Ferreira, a Liberal, defeated the Colorados in a civil war, whit Argentinean support. For the next three decades, Liberals ruled.
Then Paraguay again went to war against a foreign enemy.
The Chaco War
Paraguay and Bolivia (the only other landlocked country in South America) both claimed the Chaco region. They believed it contained oil. In 1932 Bolivian troops attacked a Paraguayan fort, and the war was on. Paraguay would lose more than 35,000 men in the fighting, but, led by a highly capable military commander, General Jose Felix Estigarribia, it won nearly every battle until an armistice, in 1935. In the peace treaty signed three years laver, Paraguay got three-quarters of the disputed territory, including a portion that had been Bolivia’s.
General Estigarribia was imprisoned briefly the year after the war ended, by officers who wanted to install a government modeled on the Fascist regime of Italy’s Benito Mussolini. That experimented failed, and by 1939 Estigarribia had become Paraguay’s president. He didn’t rule for long, however; in 1940 he was killed in a plane crash.
General Higinio Morinigo then took the power. He survived a series of social upheavals and unsuccessful attempts to seize the government before finally being ousted in 1949. Five years of uprising and violent changes of government followed Moringo’s overthrow. In the midst of the chaos, Paraguay once again fell prey to a strongman who bought order but was merciless to opponents.
Monday, September 13, 2010
Paraguay Tour Plan
You are waiting for it... you will get it... in two days... Paraguay Tour Plan!!!!
Amaze yourself, yes... you can spend 14 complete days in Paraguay and still have not see it all!!!!
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